COMMENT ⊗   VALID 00008 PAGES
C REC  PAGE   DESCRIPTION
C00001 00001
C00002 00002	\input macros[can,rpg]
C00006 00003	The types of wood used in the violin are very important they must
C00013 00004	In his article ``Some Speculations on a Crisis in the History of the Violin,''\!
C00019 00005	\sect Strings.
C00028 00006	\sect The bow.
C00034 00007	The modern bow is generally $29{1\over2}$" long of which the area of playing hair is 
C00039 00008	The bow was standardized by Fran\c cois Tourte around 1785.
C00043 ENDMK
C⊗;
\input macros[can,rpg]
\chap1.The Construction and Acoustical Properties of the Violin.1.

\sect Introduction.
In dealing with the music of the eighteenth century, it is essential to
realize that the instruments used then differed greatly from those of today
in construction, and therefore, in sound.  To a large extent, the violin was still
in its developmental stages, being constantly altered to fit the demands
of an evolving soloistic style of music.  With the rise in popularity of the 
virtuoso performer, music spread from the intimacy of the chamber into the
concert
hall necessitating an instrument with a larger sound.  This need increased with the
prevalence of the solo concerto style where the soloist was expected to be heard 
above
an accompanying group. The instrument that emerged from these influences led to the 
violin as we know it today.

\sect The Construction and Acoustical Properties of the Violin.
Reduced to a most simplistic definition, the violin is but a machine which
amplifies the sound of a vibrating string.  The means by which this is accomplished,
however, is extremely complicated, requiring a delicate balance between the various
components of the instrument (fig.1).\footnote{Paolo Peterlongo, 
{\it The Violin: its Physical 
and Acoustic Properties} (New York: Taplinger Publishing Company, 1979), p.24.}

The string is set into motion through the friction caused by the rosined hairs of the 
bow. This lateral oscillation is then translated by the bridge into a vertical force
which is exerted on the belly of the instrument, causing it to vibrate.
The vibration compresses and expands the air in the body, forcing it in and
out through the sound holes.  The construction of the body is such that it forms an
extremely efficient resonating chamber.  The bridge is situated so that its right 
foot is just slightly in front of the sound post, and its left foot is directly 
over the bass bar.  This arrangement causes the instrument to vibrate asymmetrically
in a manner carefully calculated to achieve the greatest enhancement of resonance
for the strings (fig.2).\footnote{Peterlongo, {\it The Violin}, p.70.}

The types of wood used in the violin are very important; they must
be chosen carefully, matching their physical properties to their function.  The wood
most prized for use in the belly is white pine, noted for its elasticity and 
flexibility.  These qualities are especially important in the belly which functions
as a vibrating membrane, distorting according to the force exerted on it by the
bridge.  The function of the back of the violin is to reflect the air set in
motion by the vibrating belly, and to send it back through the sound holes.  For this
reason, a harder wood, less prone to distortion is needed.  The most popular wood
(because of its beauty) is maple, although pear, sycamore, ash, poplar, and willow 
have also been used for the back. The acoustical properties of the woods vary according to the 
thickness, and tailoring the belly and the back to respond to each other in the
most effective way is an exacting art.

The physical construction of the belly greatly affects the quality of the sound
produced. According to Peterlongo, ``Bellies that are thin and flat possess greater
elasticity and consequently produce a better tone on notes in the middle and lower
registers.  In more steeply arched bellies it is generally speaking the higher tones
that sound better.''\footnote{Peterlongo, {\it The Violin}, pp.47-48.}
Obviously, the ideal is a happy medium which would result in a consistent quality
of sound produced by all the strings.  The instruments we have today are the
result of much experimentation in seeking to achieve this ideal.

A confusing aspect of the history of
the violin family is the rise and fall in popularity of the instruments of 
different makers.  Most early critics preferred the violins of the Austrian Jacob 
Stainer and the Cremonese Amati family, both of whose instruments are characterized by a 
highly arched belly.  In fact, Stainer violins are so arched, it is often possible to
look in one sound hole and be able to see out the other.  The flatter-bellied
models of Stradivarius and Guarnerius (both of Cremona), although popular in the 
18\raise 3pt\hbox{th} century, were not considered superior until the 19th century. 
George L\" ohlein, in 1774, rates violins in terms of their builders' fame, putting 
Amati's first, Stainer's
second, and Stradivarius' third.\footnote{{\it Anweisung zum Violinspielen} 
(Leipzig und Z\" ullichau, 1774), p.130: ``Die \" altesten Geigen, die sich bis zu uns 
erhalten sind die Brescianer, aus dem sechzehnten Jahrhunderts; sie sind aber etwas
klein.  Nach diesen sind die amatischen, dann die Stainer, und darauf die von
Stradivarius unter den bekannten die beruemtesten.'' George Simon L\" ohlein,
(``The
oldest violins which we have preserved are the Brescian ones from the sixteenth
century; they are, however, a bit small.  After these are the Amatis, then the
Stainers, and after them, those of Stradivarius are the most famous.'')}
Hawkins states in his {\it History of Music} that
``The violins of Cremona are exceeded only by those of Stainer, A German, whose
instruments are remarkable for a full and piercing tone.''\footnote{Sir John Hawkins, 
{\it A
General History of the Science and Practice of Music} (London: Novello, Ewer & Co.,
1875 [new printing of 1776 ed.]), p.688.}
{\it  Encyclop\' edie M\' ethodique},
a French publication from 1785, also ranks Stainer violins first, followed by those 
of the Amati family and Stradivarius.\footnote{from ``Art du faiseur d'Instruments 
de Musique et Lutherie.'' extrait de {\it l'Encyclop\' edie Methodique Arts et 
M\' etiers M\' ecaniques}, Paris, 1785 (Gen\` eve:  Minkoff Reprint, 1972), p.23:  
``Les violons qui ont le plus de r\' eputation,
sont ceux de {\it Jacob Steiner}$\ldots$ Les violons de Cr\' emone sont aussi 
tr\` es-renomm\' es.
Il y en a de deux fortes; savoir, ceux qui ont \' et\' e travaill\' es par 
les {\it Amati},
et ceux qui sont de la main de {\it Stradivarius}.'' 
(``The violins 
which have the best reputation are those of {\it Jacob Stainer}$\ldots$The 
violins of 
Cremona are also renown.  There are two [makers] which come to the fore; the 
[violins] to know are those which are
made by the {\it Amatis}, and those from the hand of {\it Stradivarius}.'')}
Yet the violins of 
Stradivarius are overwhelmingly preferred today.  One wonders if public opinion has
changed so much.

In his article ``Some Speculations on a Crisis in the History of the Violin,''\!
\footnote{Kenneth Skeaping, ``Some Speculations on a Crisis in the History of the Violin,''
{\it Galpin Society Journal}, Vol. VIII,1955. pp. 3-12.} Kenneth Skeaping suggests that 
the secret of the present popularity of Stradivarius violins lies in how the 
instruments responded to being
adapted to modern fittings and playing techniques.  He feels that the more resilient,
flatter arching of the Stradivarius combined with the higher string tension
and heavier bass bar used by later virtuosi, to bring out the full power potential
of the instrument, whereas the same alterations made on Amatis and Stainers tended
to overload them.

This highlights another important difference between early and modern 
violins---the
bass bar. This is a piece of finely grained wood, cut lengthwise
and glued onto the belly below the left foot of the bridge, running on an
oblique line, somewhat offset from the fourth string.  It serves both an
acoustical and a structural purpose.  Because of its oblique situation,
it crosses the grain of the wood of the belly, and therefore serves as a
transmitter of the vibrations of the bridge across the belly. It also acts as a 
structural reinforcement
against the pressures exerted on the belly by the string tension
and bridge vibration.  A typical bass bar of the early 18\raise 3pt\hbox{th} century, according
to Skeaping, would be:  length $9{1\over2}$", depth in center $1\over4$", 
width $3\over16$".
Modern dimensions (not stabilized until the 19\raise 3pt\hbox{th} century) average for the same
three dimensions:  $10{1\over2}$" x $7\over16$" x $1\over4$".\footnote{Ibid., p.5.}
The increased size was necessitated by increased pressure
exerted on the body of the instrument by the greater tension of the strings---a
response to demands for violins with greater volume.

Another response to these demands is shown in the alteration of the neck of
the instrument.  Originally, the neck of the violin measured about  
$4{3\over4}$"--$4{7\over8}$" 
from under the nut to the edge of the table.\footnote{Ibid., p.5.}
It was set into the body of the instrument
perpendicularly or slightly tilted, and held securely to the block by glue and nails.
The necessary rise of the strings to the bridge was accomplished by a wedge
placed under the fingerboard.  The fingerboard, according to Boyden, did 
not exceed the $8$"--$8{1\over2}$" necessary to play in 7\raise 3pt\hbox{th} position.  The 
fingerboard 
was $2$"--$2{1\over2}$" shorter than modern fingerboards.\footnote{David Boyden, {\it The 
History of Violin
Playing from its Origins to 1761}, (London:  Oxford University Press, 1975), p.200.}
When the need arose for violins which produced a
more powerful sound, builders lengthened the neck to $5{1\over16}$"--$5{1\over8}$", 
eliminated the
wedge, tilted the neck back at a greater angle than before, and raised 
the chamber pitch a half step. This, coupled with the newly developed 
Tourte bow (to be discussed below), had the effect of increasing the tension of the 
strings, the pressure on the bridge and belly, and therefore, the sound of the 
instrument.  To accommodate the increased pressure and the steeper rise of the 
fingerboard, a higher and more substantial bridge was also developed.

\sect Strings.
Evidence gathered by Arthur Mendel seems to indicate that the most widely used
pitch standard of the 18\raise 3pt\hbox{th} century sets ``a'' approximately a half step lower than the 440
Hz of today.\footnote{Alexander Ellis, Arthur Mendel, {\it Studies in the History of 
Musical Pitch}, (Amsterdam:  Frits Knuf, 1968), pp.219-221.}
This would have been particularly advantageous for the violin, providing less wear
on the gut strings whose lifespans were in any event notoriously short.

Pitch did, however, vary from country to country, and even from city to city.  It seems
that the selection of string thickness depended at least to some extent on the pitch
standard of a particular locale. 
J. F. Reichardt writes,

\quote{The strings for the instrument must be
chosen according to the pitch of the orchestra.  In an orchestra that tunes to a low
pitch, like the Berlin one, for example, the strings must be much heavier than for
one that tunes to Vienna pitch:  the difference is important.\!
\footnote{Translation:  Ellis/Mendel, {\it Studies}, p.215:  ``Der Bezug des 
Instruments muss sich nach der Stimmung des Orchesters richten.  Bey einem Orchester
was tief steht, wie z.B. das Berlinische, muss der Bezug viel st\" arker seyn, als bey
einem andern, das Wiener Stimmung hat:  der Unterschied ist wichtig.''
J. F. Reichardt, {\it Ueber die Pflichten des Ripien-Violinisten} (Berlin &
Leipzig, 1776), p.86}}

Another factor bearing on
string thickness, according to Leopold Mozart was the size of the
violin.  He states ``If the violin be a large model, thicker strings will undoubtedly
have a better effect; whereas if the body be small it will need thin strings.''\!
\footnote{Translation: Editha Knocker, {\it A Treatise on the
Fundamental Principles of Violin Playing} (London:  Oxford University Press, 
1975), p.16: 
``Hat die Violin einen grossen K\" orper, so werden unfehlbar gr\" ossere Seyten von
guter Wirkung seyn:  ist der K\" orper hingegen klein, so erfordert es eine kleine
Beseytung.'' Leopold Mozart, {\it Versuch einer gr\" undlichen Violinschule} (Augsburg: 
Johann Jacob Lotter, 1756), p.8}

He also instructs the student to match a set of strings on the instrument by 
hanging equal weights on them and comparing pitches when struck:

\quote{Now if the two strings have been well chosen they should, on
being struck, give forth the interval of a perfect fifth, but if one
string sounds too sharp and oversteps the fifth, this is a sign that it is
too weak and a thicker string is then selected; or the string which sounds
flat and is therefore too thick may be exchanged for a thinner string.\!
\footnote{Knocker, {\it A Treatise}, p.14:  ``Sind nun die zwo Seyten
recht ausgesucht; so m\" ussen sie, bey dem Anschlagen derselben, das
Intervall einer Quint hervorbringen.  Klingt eine gegen die andere zu
hoch, und \" uberqchreitet die Quint; so ist es ein Zeichen, dass selbige
zu schwach ist, und man nimmt eine st\" arkere.  Oder, man ver\" andert
die zu tief klingende und leset sich daf\" ur eine feinere aus:  denn sie
ist zu stark.'' Mozart, {\it Versuch}, p.6.}}

A silver wound G string is mentioned in Sebastian Brossard's {\it
Fragments du Violon} (c.1712),\footnote{Boyden, {\it History}, p.321.}
J.F.B.C. Majer (1732),\footnote {J.F.B.C. Majer, {\it Museum Musicum Theoretico 
Practicum}(N\" urnberg, 1732), p.75: ``Die gr\" osste oder st\" arkeste Saite/
so zur linken hand ligt/ und meistens mit Silber \" ubersponnen ist/ wird
ins g$\ldots$'' 
(``The thickest, or strongest string/ near the
left hand/ and most of the time spun over with silver/ is at g$\ldots$'')}
Quantz (1752),\footnote{Johann Joachim Quantz, {\it Versuch einer Anweisung 
die Fl\" ote traversiere zu spielen}, Kritischer revidierter
Neudruck nach dem Original Berlin 1752.  Ed. Arnold Schering.  (Leipzig:
C.P. Kahnt Nachfolger, 1906), p.152: (Speaking of the bow) ``Wird nun derselbe
allzunahe beym Stege gef\" uhret, so wird der Ton zwar schneidend und
stark, aber auch zugleich d\" unne, pfeifend, und kratzend:  besonders auf
der besponnenen Seyte.'' (``If, however, it travels too close
to the bridge, the tone will, to be sure, become cutting and loud, but at
the same time, thin, piping, and scratchy, especially on the spun
strings.'')}  and L\" ohlein, (1774)\footnote{L\" ohlein, {\it Anweisung}, p.9: 
``Das G muss fest \" ubersponnen seyn, daher ist es gut, wenn man die Saite, die 
man \" uberspinnen will, vorher brav ausdehnet; widrigenfalls dehnet sie sich,
nachdem sie \" ubersponnen, und der Drat wird los, welches einen
schnarrenden Ton verursachet.'' 
(``The G
must be firmly spun. Accordingly, it is good to stretch these strings
before winding them, for if you fail to do this, they will stretch after
being spun, and the wire will loosen, which will give rise to a raspy
tone.''}.  Brossard also speaks of a silver wound D string, and states
that the wound strings are thinner than those purely of gut.  Presumably,
this overspinning served to improve the response of strings when bowed.

\sect The bow.
The type of wood used in a bow is very important to achieve the desired 
characteristics of flexibility, strength, and lightness.
The most popular woods used are snakewood (specklewood),
ironwood, ebony, and pernambuco (also called brazilwood---the preferred material
of Fran\c cois Tourte).

 A popular notion, fostered by some early scholars such as F\'etis,
is that the bow remained in a rough, primitive state until rescued
by the revoLutionary developments of Franc\c oiq Tourte.  However, as David Boyden
poInts out, @%hAgK∃[fAQ¬eIYr↓YSWKαce↓β&CπQβ&C∃β[L{3'9ε∪W'LLW↔~
xbπ&QPSN&∞O<Tβ∨πKMε⊗␈∂>FGr8	-n≥<↑$∞{⎇;D≤|⊃-lλ_;D;[tM]⎇<h≥;⎇;ND≠yH∞M99(∞⎇=~∞:;\nL8z0↔→FE0z≥2w:4[w⊂:7H22z0Zv⊂7wλ:42P≥4wv4[⊗⊂0w→⊂72s[2qz⊂≥42P1≠{V⊂ 4he vep¬rAA↓c←kX↓←LAi!J~∃S9giek5K]h\α9≡s≠|{S;∨&+n∪π4K⊃α␈K∪↔9bββα∪/⊃α∂↔L∧v.v-|v.r∞mvr∧=z&.fM∀ε⊗O4
F␈/.LR::D↓PG]M≡B¬6≥⎇FNw>
⊗.`Q*Vv"
m⊗}f≥mW/≡≥4εNrλ|W∞≡
≤6G&T
Vv"λ|V>∞n|↔↔'βH

]9;FD∧∃;Z.l<\p-D⊃9~.M;{K∧ε.-m%∃λβ"N¬LN-%oC"U-l[|]∞]X=→-O+λ∃
(~~.>≠|↑$
yH∃
(_[nt~<h
m⎇λ⊂.4≥y;
A Y≠l>;90↔≥2r⊂0\P:40]⊂7s⊂≥42P;~wv4w⊂⊂+t→y2pyH:42P_0y7h]pP;4[v4w_wzv2λ12P0Y0x:2Y⊂:7FB4wy2H6sr2\5⊂3'\6yP0\P:42H:4vr\P22vXw22r⊂:42H9z9:Xz:y0[⊂1t0[3ryP~w⊂:4→P17{H;ry2CE9zqZ⊂:40]⊂4z⊂≥pyP4[x7yyZq62P≥5P1w[;2y:λ:42P≠v2⊂*≠P:42H72{Wλ⊂*42\2s7y→V⊂6p[<P7sλ:42FB2py6≡P17{\P;ry→P24yXpy22Y⊂0w2λ92x6_qrr⊂≥tz4⊂≠2{ryλ6wr2[9]P0\P0P)→yzv:⊂:42\2FE \2P3"]P9zy≥4{4g→P2|0[x62yH0{0t[0q62H37y⊂≤z:r<K⊂"{2[⊂:42\pP0y→P90y→v<P 3igneD 
by theIp makers, so that datingthemis extremely difficult&

NeVertheless, out ob the suRvivi@9NAKq¬[aYKLXAIe¬oSMOLXAC]⊂AG←]QK[a←β∪πKe∧#↔O∂⊗KCS'}sM1hSG∂#}cπKMεCπ[∃ε∪↔↔9ε3∃¬#=βCL∧V≡*∞Mv>=~→.$_(⊂→→pyw`.abde viewob the evOlpiS=\A←L4⊃aQJ↓E←n]qMW←i9←iKwMKBAKβ≠C↔∂L33@∀
&}⊗↑.B∧&⎇m⊗v?M⎇b?~≡'&N=HRbε	&∞n↑4¬&∞β_[nDβyP&Xw:yq\αipt''
[\it The GalpinSoci@∃irA∃=keMC1|XA-=X]∪∪$XA≠CIGPH@Drj`v↓⊃K]edA'h\αα∨↔∨⊗;∃∨LhSns'"αS#∃∧∪?←yαB3?;&{91↓	AeY1β∪;⊃β,!91↓IAe%Zα∪π[L∧B∧⊗␈_F.r}4π]f≡D∧FO>MwπOg4ε∞vDλ&␈NLYb?_Q(↔π&≤9F*ελF/∩λ|VN≡]l&}>]`λ∞m{H⊂m}Y;∪
∀_Z4d
≠⎇<NL)i␈AQU~→$
9xp~λ9z94Zβi`≥Nαβ∪'≠4+C↔;≤∧Rε⊗↑Nv.∞βH⊂~~2P10\7xzbH13p↔ and @QQJA[=IKe\αβ?]∧¬↔1 Y~T_⎇0→≥0z0∃Re of the Stick8A∪@9∧εFF*,↔ε␈≤X	$Xπp↔ phe curf@∀ASfAα≠?;[,παbε| ε␈/L|↔ε Q(	N4πm @QQJAQ¬Sd@Q→SF@9~I2`&mxnMβ0∂de{I`→Yβ+GSK∂#'?;~βπK∃∧∧&␈↔-x
l\λ→P→≠vP"0]4r⊂!≠|r2g	yP=n~z⊂$4\z7y<←⊗εE 0lateS 38 and "→,}
The hair, @]QSGP↓H ?-↑2ε
∞-⊗⊗⊗β{@≤Yy5∧∧α_n']2y~∩λ⊂;tr→T⊂4`3 sec@UeKHAα3'K↔eIβπQ∧εFF*∞
vNwLXBπ&≡∧hV≥lBε∂Dλ

(→P→≠qW⊂⊂⊃py6<H13p↔s had a fi@aK@AQ¬SdAi∃]gS←8XAEkβ!βπK⎇+;⊃β&C∃β7L∧F&FT
v $≥~→!QL-w∞8∧yrH→x:.~13t=]4;⊂!Yw::i≡T∧ bow makers Becantk pRovide meanq of tightening the haab by¬
Var`∪←UfA]kPA[KG!C]Sg5f\~∃QQJAg
aKnAαk↔∂#∞s'O5ε3π7'fKπIβ&yβ7∨&+K9βεcπg↔↔→βCK}∪π3Jβ∂π7*β';SzβWO∀hSπ?/!βS#*β↔;⊃ε{→βSF)↓E↑g∪π'O*↓OCRfC?c←##yβ≡+;SW↔I↓#≠N99Q%ph*7↔↔≠↔;;*βOSπ&+MβSFQβSF)β;Wn∪↔H4V{→β#∞KKMβ/≠↔⊃βNqβS#*β?]π;πMβ∂βCK?FK7πS.ce↓aαi5EAαrs≠?␈#;?S/Z7πKNqα7↔↔≠↔;;*a4+]c'QαFK7?vK∃αWvK[↔K≤+33↔ra↓"C∂∪'Miαβ∂#↔RαO↔∂≠S'↔rα∂Kπn{'Oeb↓EYM2I1βAs	]]59ah4Vβα1∨}qβπCε+33∃ε{C∪'v'K↔n+;P4Vc↔∪'"β?'~aβnsO!β3∃ε∪πOS}syβ?*βns'"β3∃β↔∪';yα1β3¬π≠?g∃πZs'Qεc∃β∂⊗K;y1πβπK∂*βGU≥>+33∃ε+OP4V≠?7C␈~q≥β.)β∪∃βAAβ?*β∂↔;"βK'w→β∪∃ε≠K'9ε#∃β∂F+[π1%c3∪?'→⊃≥≥h)#β∧{;∃β␈∪∪';∂∪'3dhS∂π3g→βOπN!β←?}!βnsO!βS#*βOS'≡[yβ?∩βns'"βS#∃π≠Sπ3←qβπ;"βS#∃εCπ'IπZs'Q¬##∃βF{KO↔F'Kyε∪↔∂π,ε6(h-≡BεO46}o
z6."
|bβC∧
w∩β⊗εαε6≤,W↔~
|bεF}.6.F≥≡"r:u∨`hPQ*FF*}&.∂Dλfg∞>NV∂&≥⎇bεNd∞FF*
HVv?M∧ε}2∞>W↔6≡m⊗v:-w?~D
6F␈}1PW&≡Bπ&]↔αεmxMT≥x<d=Y0↔λ62yyH9z0w→0y24↑2r⊂*~0s⊂:~0z⊂'Yα the rao@1S\\@↓)QJ@4∃SMGα{;O'∨#↔;∂Jβ'9βd∧Vv?MεO~8n97q7\0z2bλ4s⊂(_tp∞tings and drawingpεA←L↓iQJ~)iS@7*q↓α∂|sS↔7∧{@⊗∂-∀ε&/<8M≡≥~0↔[9P7cλ10∂`/LAGC\↓EJAg=[@↔←FQβ7Lε6f.≤M⊗v:AQ&/∨Xλm≤8ε6,H9tw1YP4r⊂~yFE .ot always clear if @QQJAoISiKd↓SfAI∃`∂∂KL∧&Nvtλ

(≥≠nL8ε⊂ ,engdh h∂LAβ##∃β⊗{]β?⊂∧ε}vM∀π&FQQ'ε@_8`)ng area o@_AaQJ↓QC@'α!`hPβ"@↓J~→(
]y→0→≠⊂17`7 is Generalhp∩@⊂dsvCq←mKdβ∪p∩λH⊂⊗≠w3P /d∧AoQ%GPAi!JAC@⊗+¬β?2βC &≤ε0∀[3P40Zy⊂4`3 	α$Hkvc9α{[↔I↔q⊃	8hR7ππα8
.990↔≥9P1`!lculAted @→` >TλGε∂⎇→f >h≠p∪λ842P≥4rr`3 shoW that baroque @	←ofAβ;?W3 h#@6≤/∩ε7-yRε∞-x
.D	.$DH≠p∪λ860|Zw3P$_ty⊂∀→qS⊂ ! pic@QkeJAα3@⊗@{(∩EHhπ⊂+Ytsr`,'s 
{\id Musi@-CYSg
QKfAQQKCiIk[|X↓Fbnd@XAMSα91U%∧εFzαF#α"∩
x	D∞≠_>-≥Yh∩≥<H
∞M→(⊂∩[3y0{~w3P )n 
VeracIni's Lπ`@9β⊃β/→β	U@#EDε -9k@≠
U⊂⊂*~2P0w≠w<vw]yP0  @π←[a1KChA5kgSG,[∪CgQKdNN4∃giCQKf@1∧∧ε∧f↑@πN␈↑ ∧-β{P!→P0p∪ lh∂]NαβπMβL{WIβL¬g∨',X,]]	dt≥z~,=λ≥{n]→λ⊂⊃→PεE !rh∂k]⊂@@⊃I~!	:s4{?S;⎇#↔nK}∪↔KQ∧#?;'v;S/9bββα,≥V/~
L⊗f⊗βx
β\P 
anuscript _Nα9βA9 ε∩`/C"RL≥9<h
L8ε17]⊂πs @%]gieU[C@;&1β'w3↔;S⎇∪eβ?2βS#∃∧cπS∃β	↑sK∞KO*∧∧t∞K~_[o∂⎇~∨Dy;]∞↑↑(⊂∩~yz4g→ztyd→yP12]8πee@8~∃iQ∀AQK]≥iPA←α1βS#*β?K∪NsπKe∧εfN}M→bε⊗βxP_w2⊂*~0z⊂ /d∧ABAα∪?]β6{AβO|c?'O&K
βCdg'lp↓QX_⊂M}h≠p∪λ90wf~w⊂77]⊂:w2→y⊂∩	
∩-Q.H397vH:42i→P:7P	→≠⎇@1\h∂mKHe|HAαQβ7⎇≠Q9↓!⊃P~"D↓PRMI¬U)M/65≠uL↑L←@∩λ)wv'Ka3p↔.''\!
Xfo@=iUOi∃w∪ES⊂\XA`8falAI←EKePA	←]%]Oi←8AMKK1`
βSFQαS∞c?Q∧KEβS∞c''≠8βπ?/!βS#*β≠K↔(h#C3∂K';≥εCπ'I∧c↔;∨&Aβ/→¬##∃β⊗{]1β∨#πS'v9βS#∂!β¬β⊗{]β←M#!βSF)βS?&1β3,s∨S!ε{⊂⊂h$B#""$λ
m};→,(≠=,=λ≥≠mt≤z≠n.λ→Sn⊂:42H6sy2H9zyj_tp∞eD compositions.  He also Points
to 17\raise 3pt\hbox{th} and 18Lraise 3pt\hbox{tte{Ibid., pp.41-42}
David Boyden takes issue with this view in his {\it History}.
The most advanced Italian players of the early 18\raise 3pt\hbox{th} century
were using bows with about $24$"  of playing hair. Roger North writes that virtuoso
Nicola Matteis used a ``very long bow'' which was ``bipedalian''---approximately
two feet.\footnote{Boyden, {\it History}, p.210.}
In his commentary on F. Raguenet's comparison of French and Italian
music, John Hawkins observes, ``In the year of 1720, a bow of 24 inches was, on
account of its length, called a Sonata bow; the common bow was shorter; and by the
account above given the French bow must have been shorter still.''\footnote{Hawkins,
{\it A General History}, p.782.}
It seems unlikely, therefore, that the English violinists, who were much
less advanced technically than the Italians, would be using even longer bows than 
those required for 
soloistic playing.  The English violin music of the time followed the style
of the French in the popularity of simple dances.  Not only would a long bow have
been unnecessary for playing these pieces, but it might even have hampered the 
playing style of the musicians through the awkwardness of its length.

The bow @]CfAgQC]ICIISuK⊂AErA→`πiH2ε≡⎇≡2¬&}↑'&*≡&␈.l@λε⊗n
+AQR~<d
8:;D{{]∞-8]=
≥{H≥l≡h≥≠d
;Xp↔\87y0]2P0v≠⊂:42H22{2[5x6r[:9P7Yα the bog
qp to that poInt.  These develkpments were epπgK]QSCYYdA[CI∀AS\AIKga←9gJAi<AiQJ4∃UKK⊂AM←dαβ['K'+?O%π#=βC⊗{∪W∂*β¬β7␈∪∃βC␈;↔K≠,a1βO/≠Sππv+⊃βO␈+;⊃1∧∧⊗v"∀ε/⊗\≡F/∩O⊗v∞]≤0hW,≥f>*d∧¬&F←∀π&↑⎇4π&FTf␈⊗T
v $≠≠{L|<H≤
L>:;Lt~_:.%λ≥z,L<H∀M≤X[{D
yH~≥<Hβ!%_<[n]Yλ	ε{≠⎇Y.&-IλD∞z=~∧<≤≤M␈~;8.L;≡(∧F-,	¬U)Lε∧λ~_-≡\k+%↑⎇~;
D→Y5l↑H≥~≥H≠;lL<[H-⎇|j+L[{⎇
m⎇→>aQQ9≥l≡Yλ∩↑[{K(≥≠→;ED≡w~.D∃Z3mM;K3,≥z;Yd<h~.D∃x<d;Yλ	≡⎇Kλ¬λ[|⎇
⎇NHλλ]~8<d	≠⎇y$λ{kK↓QL.,&E+λ≤¬g-K.&u←Kλ≥Yβ"L≥H~3L>Y8<lT~;H∞M→(≥]\z3md≠yH∞M→(_M}h_↑$
8:z-lh≥~T_⎇<Nl=≥<LT≠yH∞M→(≤nM8zh↓QX{{L<=Y(∞,=~→.$≥~_-d_{p↔≥2|↔⊂∃7zy:→P5rx≥⊂:42H94q1≠w⊂7sλ40tyλ360zλ1<P8~w1t4[3P4zβE0z⊂≥42P7≥z⊂;t]4⊂0P→2y9:[2W⊂⊂∃42P1Xvq92H∀4w;Xy2⊂1]y;2TH7s⊂:~2P17]P72qYyytz_z2r⊂_PεE2~s32y→w:⊂)[y:⊂7Y⊂42pY⊂:7P~prx⊂≥42P4_ty⊂0]p|P3≤7vP:~2P9z~quW⊂λ*42P≠v2⊂0_9{pwλ14v6≤SSFE
0yP!≠|r2wλ1pv6≤P:42H87tw≥2r⊂:~x9P7Y⊂!wy→v64VU0y24[4P9z≡v2P1≠{yTP≥ry2P≤2x6 Xrr⊂+Zz4εE≥42P4_z1t2]⊂42pY9P30[tpiar to modern violiniSts (fig.7).

\secT Summary.
To summarize, the violin of the e@¬eYr@Dq9eC%gJ@gAi9QE=qwiQxAGK]QkerA]QK\A
←[aCIKHAo%iPAi!JA[←⊃Ke\~)S]giIk[K]PXAo←UYHAQ¬mJAQ¬HABAMQ←ei∃dX@~)iQSG-KdA]∃GV@QQQSGW∃`ACf↓BAeKMkYhA=LAEK%]NA]¬SYKH↓iVAi!JAE←⊃rAeCQQKdAQQC\@4∃[←eQSgKH↓CfAi=ICrRlAiQJ↓MS]O∃eE←CIHAoCLAoKI≥J[gQ¬aKHX↓C]HA¬E←khd∞DAMQ←ei∃dv~∃QQJAg1←aJA=H	βSF)βOS⊗K;∨Mπ#=βSF)βKN#∨∃1ε∂∂?oβ3'OF+⊃βJβ7.≥n2ε}d∞FF(Q(fNv|↑&⊗}≤,Bπ⊗≡Mε/∩∞Mε∞r⊂π&NNLV"εl\6Zb∞|↔~εL↑7~π>LV/αD↓PV∞l@π&FT'⊗NL|Rπ&
≥fv/%Dεf@⎇y4ED_;Y∧[_=∞L<KC!(;≤{eD≥~→$∞⎇≤Z-l|h∃l↑Y(_-Mλ→⎇.Eλ≥z.Mλ≥~T≠≠ul↑⎇λ⊂~≥wP8'\βsibly wound
With silveR, and the@dAgKe∀Aik]∃HACE=khAB↓QC@32βOS↔αβ3 ?|Z"π&≥bεN|LW⊗R∞
↔&≡¬aPPhαU~T_[⎇d
_9λ∀_{p↔≥2|⊂'\α straight stici, with a pointed tip. The length,
it @MKC[f↓GYKCHXAIKAK]IK⊂A←\AQQJAieaJA←α1β /↑=⊗~ε,X
-lh≤≠∨99εD∧≥~→$∞z≠tNL<Hβ!Xπ{yH;tz4λ⊂→_∩λ⊗VR→R⊃⊂8≠0|tw→P40t\⊂;wz[2⊂40]2P9zY34qbY⊂37`2 the sieple French-styde 
dances, and the lOnger $24$" bogs were needed for the soloistic literatuRe.
Fewer hairs were useD in the bow, making the ribbon about $3\over16$"
thinner than modern bows.

The resulting sound of the 18\raise 3pt\hbox{th} century violin was therefore much less brilliant 
than the
modern violin because of the lower tension of the strings, a lower force exerted
by the lighter bow, and the lower pitch of the instrument.  The bow
had a springier action, conducive to a more detach'e style of playing
with fewer dynamic variations.

\vfill\end